A History of the Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church Since WWI
Introduction |
History | Doctrine
The Russian Revolution and the Soviet period
The Balkans and eastern Europe | The Orthodox Church in the Middle East
Orthodoxy in the United States | The Orthodox diaspora and missions
The almost complete disappearance of Christianity in Asia Minor, the
regrouping of the Orthodox churches in the Balkans, the tragedy of the
Russian Revolution, and the Orthodox diaspora in the West radically
changed the entire structure of the Orthodox world.
The Russian Revolution and the Soviet period
The Church of Russia was less unprepared than generally believed to
face the revolutionary turmoil. Projects of necessary reforms had been
prepared since 1905, and most clergy did not feel particularly attached to
the fallen regime that had deprived the church of its freedom for several
centuries. During the rule of the provisional government, in August 1917 a
council representing the entire church met in Moscow, including 265
members of the clergy and 299 laymen. The democratic composition and
program of the council had been planned by the Pre-Conciliar Commission.
It adopted a new constitution of the church that provided for the
reestablishment of the patriarchate, the election of bishops by the
dioceses, and the representation of laymen on all levels of church
administration. It was only in the midst of the new revolutionary turmoil,
however, that Tikhon, metropolitan of Moscow, was elected patriarch
(October 31, 1917—six days after the Bolshevik takeover). The bloody
events into which the country was plunged did not allow all the reforms to
be carried out, but the people elected new bishops in several dioceses.
The Bolshevik government, because of its Marxist ideology, considered
all religion as the "opium of the people." On January 20, 1918, it
published a decree depriving the church of all legal rights, including
that of owning property. The stipulations of the decree were difficult to
enforce immediately, and the church remained a powerful social force for
several years. The patriarch replied to the decree by excommunicating the
"open or disguised enemies of Christ," without naming the government
specifically. He also made pronouncements on political issues that he
considered of moral importance: in March 1918 he condemned the peace of
Brest-Litovsk that brought an unsatisfactory armistice between Russia and
the Central Powers, and in October he addressed an "admonition" to Lenin,
calling on him to proclaim an amnesty. Tikhon was careful, however, not to
appear as a counterrevolutionary and in September 1919 called the faithful
to refrain from supporting the Whites (anti-Communists) and to obey those
decrees of the Soviet government that were not contrary to their Christian
conscience.
The independence of the church suffered greatly after 1922. In February
of that year, the government decreed the confiscation of all valuable
objects preserved in the churches. The patriarch would have agreed to that
measure if he had had the means to check on the government contention that
all confiscated church property would be used to help the starving
population on the Volga. The government refused all guarantees but
supported a group of clergy who were ready to cooperate with it and to
overthrow the patriarch. While Tikhon was under house arrest, this group
took over his office and soon claimed the allegiance of a sizable
proportion of bishops and clergy. This became known as the schism of the
"Renovated" or "Living" Church, and it broke the internal unity and
resistance of the church. Numerous bishops and clergy faithful to the
patriarch were tried and executed, including the young and progressive
metropolitan Benjamin of Petrograd. The "Renovated" Church soon broke the
universal discipline of Orthodoxy by admitting married priests to the
episcopate and by permitting widowed priests to remarry.
Upon his release, Tikhon condemned the schismatics, and many clergy
returned to his obedience. But he also published (presumably against his
will) a declaration affirming that he "was not the enemy of the Soviet
government" and dropped any public opposition to the authorities. Tikhon's
attitude of conformism did not bring immediate results. His designated
successors (after he died in 1925) were all arrested. In 1927 the
"substitute locum tenens" (holder of the position) of the patriarchate,
Metropolitan Sergius, pledged loyalty to the Soviet government.
Nevertheless, under the rule of Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s and '30s,
the church suffered a bloody persecution that claimed thousands of
victims. By 1939 only three or four Orthodox bishops and 100 churches
could officially function: the church was practically suppressed. The
martyrdom of the Russian Church during the Soviet period was probably a
most intensive and bloodthirsty persecution of the Church in its whole
history.
A spectacular reversal of Stalin's policies occurred, however, during
World War II. Sergius was elected patriarch in 1943 and the "Renovated"
schism was ended. Under Sergius' successor, Patriarch Alexis (1945-70),
the church was able to open 25,000 churches and the number of priests
reached 33,000. But a new antireligious move was initiated by Prime
Minister Nikita Khrushchev in 1959-64, reducing the number of open
churches to less than 10,000. Patriarch Pimen was elected in 1971
following Alexis' death, and, although the church still commanded the
loyalty of millions, its future remained uncertain.
After 70 years of repression and antireligious propaganda, however, the
church experienced greater religious freedom in the late 1980s,
culminating with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
The Balkans and eastern Europe
In bringing about the fall of the Turkish, Austrian, and Russian
empires, World War I provoked significant changes in the structures of the
Orthodox Church. On the western borders of what was then the Soviet Union,
in the newly born republics of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania,
the Orthodox minorities established themselves as autonomous churches. The
first three joined the jurisdiction of Constantinople, and the Lithuanian
diocese remained nominally under Moscow. In Poland, which then included
several million Belorussians and Ukrainians, the ecumenical patriarch
established an autocephalous church (1924) over the protests of Patriarch
Tikhon. After World War II the Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian
autonomies were again suppressed, and in Poland the Orthodox Church was
first reintegrated to the jurisdiction of Moscow and later was declared
autocephalous again (1948).
In the Balkans, changes were even more significant. The five groups of
Serbian dioceses (Montenegro, patriarchate of Karlovci, Dalmatia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Old Serbia) were united (1920-22) under one Serbian
patriarch, residing in Belgrade, the capital of the new Yugoslavia.
Similarly, the Romanian dioceses of Moldavia-Walachia, Transylvania,
Bukovina, and Bessarabia formed the new patriarchate of Romania (1925),
the largest autocephalous church in the Balkans. Finally, in 1937, after
some tension and a temporary schism, the patriarchate of Constantinople
recognized the autocephaly of the Church of Albania.
After World War II, Communist regimes were established in the Balkan
states. There were no attempts, however, at liquidating the churches
entirely, similar to the persecutions that took place in Russia in the
1920s and '30s. In both Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, church and state were
legally separated. In Romania, paradoxically, the Orthodox Church remained
legally linked to the Communist state. With its solid record of resistance
to the Germans, the Serbian Church was able to preserve more independence
from the government than its sister churches of Bulgaria and Romania.
Generally speaking, however, all the Balkan churches adopted an attitude
of loyalty to the new regime, according to the pattern given by the
patriarchate of Moscow. At that price, they could keep some theological
schools, some publications, and the possibility to worship. This is also
the case of the Orthodox minority in Czechoslovakia, which was united and
organized into an autocephalous church by the patriarchate of Moscow in
1951. Only in Albania did a Communist government announce the total
liquidation of organized religion, following the Cultural Revolution of
1966-68.
Among the national Orthodox churches, the Church of Greece is the only
one that preserved the legal status it acquired in the 19th century as the
national state church. As such, it was supported by the successive
political regimes of Greece. It could also develop an impressive internal
mission. The Brotherhood Zoe ("Life"), organized according to the pattern
of Western religious orders, was successful in creating a large system of
church schools.
The Communist governments throughout eastern Europe collapsed during
the late 1980s and early 1990s, effectively dissolving state control over
churches and bringing new political and religious freedoms into the
region.
The Orthodox Church in the Middle East
As a result of the Greco-Turkish War, the entire Greek population of
Asia Minor was transferred to Greece (1922); the Orthodox under the
immediate jurisdiction of the ecumenical patriarchate of Constantinople
were thus reduced to the Greek population of Constantinople (Istanbul) and
its vicinity. This population, rapidly shrinking in recent years, is now
reduced to a few thousand. Still recognized as holding an honorary primacy
among the Orthodox churches, the ecumenical patriarchate also exercises
jurisdiction over several dioceses of the "diaspora" and, by consent of
the Greek government, over the Greek islands. The ecumenical patriarchate
convened pan-Orthodox conferences in Rhodes, Belgrade, Geneva, and other
cities and began preparations for a "Great Council" of the Orthodox
Church.
Together with the ecumenical patriarchate, the ancient sees of
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem are remnants of the Byzantine imperial
past, but under the present conditions they still possess many
opportunities of development: Alexandria, as the centre of emerging
African communities (see below The Orthodox diaspora and missions);
Antioch, as the largest Arab Christian group, with dioceses in Syria,
Lebanon, and Iraq; and Jerusalem, as the main custodian of the Christian
holy places in that city.
The two ancient churches of Cyprus and Georgia, with their quite
peculiar history, continue to play important roles among the Orthodox
sister churches. Autocephalous since 431, the Church of Cyprus survived
the successive occupations, and often oppressions, by the Arabs, the
Crusaders, the Venetians, the Turks, and the English. Following the
pattern of all areas where Islam was predominant, the archbishop is
traditionally seen as the ethnarch of the Greek Christian Cypriots.
Archbishop Makarios also became the first president of the independent
Republic of Cyprus in 1960. The Church of Georgia, isolated in the
Caucasus in a country that became part of the Russian Empire in 1801, is
the witness of one of the most ancient Christian traditions. It received
autocephaly from its mother Church of Antioch as early as the 6th century
and developed a literary and artistic civilization in its own language.
Its head bears the traditional title of "Catholicos-Patriarch." When the
Russians annexed the country in 1801, they suppressed Georgia's
autocephaly and the church was governed by a Russian "exarch" until 1917
when the Georgians reestablished their ecclesiastical independence.
Fiercely persecuted during the 1920s, the Georgian Church survives to the
present day as an autocephalous patriarchate.
Orthodoxy in the United States
The first Orthodox communities in what is today the continental United
States were established in Alaska and on the West Coast, as the extreme
end of the Russian missionary expansion through Siberia (see above The
church in imperial Russia). Russian monks settled on Kodiak Island in
1794. Among them was St. Herman (died 1837, canonized 1970), an ascetic
and a defender of the natives' rights against their exploitation by
ruthless Russian traders. After the sale of Alaska to the United States, a
separate diocese "of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska" was created by the
Holy Synod (1870). After the transfer of the diocesan centre to San
Francisco and its renaming as the diocese "of the Aleutian Islands and
North America" (1900), the original church establishment exercised its
jurisdiction on the entire North American continent. In the 1880s, it
accepted back into Orthodoxy hundreds of "Uniate" parishes of immigrants
from Galicia and Carpatho-Russia, particularly numerous in the northern
industrial states and in Canada. It also served the needs of immigrants
from Serbia, Greece, Syria, Albania, and other countries. Some Greek and
Romanian communities, however, invited priests directly from the mother
country without official contact with the American bishop. In 1905 the
American archbishop Tikhon (future patriarch of Moscow) presented to the
Russian synod the project of an autonomous, or autocephalous, church of
America, whose structure would reflect the ethnic pluralism of its
membership. He also foresaw the inevitable Americanization of his flock
and encouraged the translation of the liturgy into English.
These projects, however, were hampered by the tragedies that befell the
Russian Church following the Russian Revolution. The administrative system
of the Russian Church collapsed. The non-Russian groups of immigrants
sought and obtained their affiliation with mother churches abroad. In 1921
a "Greek Archdiocese of North and South America" was established by the
ecumenical patriarch Meletios IV Metaxakis. Further divisions within each
national group occurred repeatedly, and several independent jurisdictions
added to the confusion.
A reaction against this chaotic pluralism manifested itself in the
1950s. More cooperation between the jurisdictions and a more systematic
theological education contributed to an increased desire for unity. A
Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA)
was established in 1960. In 1970 the patriarch of Moscow, reviving
Tikhon's project of 1905, formally proclaimed its diocese in America
(which had been in conflict with Moscow since 1931 on the issue of
"loyalty" to the Soviet Union) as the autocephalous Orthodox Church in
America OCA, totally independent from administrative connections abroad.
The ecumenical patriarchate of Constantinople, however, protested this
move, turned down a request for autonomy presented by the Greek
archdiocese (the largest single Orthodox body in the United States), and
reiterated its opposition to the use of English in the liturgy (1970).
This latest crisis of American Orthodoxy involves the very understanding
of the Orthodox presence in the Western world, centring on the question of
the utility of preserving the ethnic ties of the past.
The Orthodox diaspora, the calendar change and missions
Since World War I, millions of east Europeans were dispersed in various
areas where Orthodox communities had never existed before. The Russian
Revolution provoked a massive political emigration, predominantly to
western Europe and particularly France. It included eminent churchmen,
theologians, and Christian intellectuals, such as Bulgakov, Berdyayev, and
V.V. Zenkovsky, who were able not only to establish in Paris a theological
school of great repute but also to contribute significantly to the
ecumenical movement. In 1922 Patriarch Tikhon appointed Metropolitan
Evlogy to head the émigré churches, with residence in Paris. The authority
of the metropolitan was challenged, however, by a group of bishops who had
left their sees in Russia, retreating with the White armies, and who had
found refuge in Sremski-Karlovci as guests of the Serbian Church. Despite
several attempts at reconciliation, the "Synod" of Karlovci, refused to
recognize any measure taken by the reestablished patriarchate of Moscow
accusing the Moscow hierarchs of collaboration with the communists and the
betrayal of the Church. This Church transferred its headquarters to New
York and is also known as the "Russian Orthodox Church outside of
Russia." It is very well known for its missionary work, traditional
piety and its firm stand against ecumenism and modernism. However this
Church has no canonical relation with the official Orthodox patriarchates
and churches. Recently ROCA has gathered certain moderate traditionalist,
Old Calendarist Churches making thus a front against the ecumenism. A
"Ukrainian Orthodox Church in exile" finds itself in a similarly irregular
canonical situation. Other émigré groups found refuge under the canonical
auspices of the ecumenical patriarchate.
The change of traditional Julian ecclesiastical calendar in 1924 and
adoption of the so called "improved Gregorian calendar" by the ecumenical
patriarchate and soon by a number of other local Orthodox churches has
produced very painful schisms in Greece, Romania and Bulgaria. In the
meanwhile the Old Calendarist groups in Greece were even more divided over
the question of the validity of the official Church sacraments. A rather
uncontrolled reaction of the official Church of Greece only deepened the
existing schism. The Old Calendarist movement which started as an
opposition to the calendar change has gradually grown into a movement
which strongly rejects any kind of ecumenical activity. In their opinion
the change of the calendar only opened the door of the Church for further
modernisation and secularisation. The radical ecclesiology of certain
extremist Old Calendarist has finally isolated their groups from the
communion with other Orthodox Churches. On the other hand the moderate Old
Calendarists while recognizing the validity of the official Church
sacraments still abstain from communion with other Churches waiting for
their return to the traditional course.
After World War II, a very numerous Greek emigration took place to
western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa. In East Africa,
without much initial effort on their part, these Greek-speaking emigrants
have attracted a sizable number of black Christians, who have discovered
in the Orthodox liturgy and sacramental worship a form of Christianity
more acceptable to them than the more dogmatic institutions of Western
Christianity. Also, in their eyes, Orthodoxy has the advantage of having
no connection with the colonial regimes of the past. Orthodox communities,
with an ever increasing number of native clergy, are spreading in Uganda,
Kenya, and Tanzania. Less professionally planned than the former Russian
missions in Alaska and Japan, these young churches constitute an
interesting development in African Christianity.
Webmaster Note: This page was retrieved from www.archive.org after
decani.yunet.com went defunct following the Kosovo conflict. This page was
originally created by monks at Decani Monastery in Kosovo. It has been
slightly edited for inclusion on this site. Abridged, from Callistos Ware,
The Orthodox Church, p. 12-16.
|